CLASS 9 SOCIALISM IN EUROPE AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION (HISTORY-2)

SOCIALISM IN EUROPE & RUSSIAN REVOLUTION

What is Socialism?

A political and economic theory of social organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution and exchange should be owned or regulated by community as a whole.

History of Socialism

Socialism has its origins in the French Revolution of 1789 and the changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution.

Sudden change in the society occurred after the French revolution which was dominated by the Church and the aristocracy and divided into estates and orders.

The French Revolution had a great impact on the world and brought about a dramatic change in the society.

Many people had different views about how the Government should work and about the rights of people.

The two groups main groups of people were: Some were Conservatives, others were Liberals and Radicals.

Who are Liberals?

The Liberals are those who wanted a nation which support all religions.

They believed in safeguarding the rights of people against the Govt. They also argued for a representative and elected parliamentarian government. 

The liberals however were not democrats as they did not favour the principles of Universal adult franchise.

They wanted voting rights to be given only to men of propertied class and not to women.

Who are Radicals?

The Radicals wanted a government duly elected by the majority of the country’s population.

They supported women’s rights and organized the various suffragette movements (movements for giving right women the right to vote) to achieve voting rights.

They opposed the privileges enjoyed by  landowners and wealthy factory owners.

They were not against the existence of private property, but they disliked concentration of property in the hands of a few.

Conservatives?

Conservatives are those who felt that changes should be brought forth slowly but at the same time the past should also be respected.

They opposed the views of radicals and liberals.

They believed in the privileges enjoyed by the nobility and the wealthy class.

Earlier in the 18^th century, they generally opposed to the idea of change. But after the French Revolution, they felt the need for change. By 19^th century, they accepted that some change was necessary but, believed that the past had to be respected.

Industrial Society & Social Change

The Industrial Revolution first began in the 18^th century in England and later it spread to the other parts of Europe.

During the Industrial Revolution, new cities, new industrial regions and new railway lines were developed.

It also resulted in large-scale migration of people from the villages to the cities in search of jobs. It brought men, women and children to factories.

Workers worked for long hours at extremely low wages.

Housing and sanitation facilities were not given to workers. Unemployment was common particularly during times of low demand for industrial goods.

Outlook of Nationalists, Liberals & Radicals

Almost all industries were privately owned. However, many of the liberals and radicals had their own property and were also employers. They had made their wealth through industrial ventures or trade. They believed that benefits could be achieved, if the workforce in the economy was healthy and citizens were educated.

Some nationalists, liberals and radicals wanted revolutions to put and end to the kind of governments existing in Europe in 1815.

In France, Italy , Germany and Russia, they became revolutionaries and worked to overthrow existing monarchs. Nationalists talked of revolutions that would create ‘nations’ where all citizens would have equal rights.

After 1815, Giuseppe Mazzini, and Italian nationalist, conspired (illegal agreement) with others to form Italy where all citizens would have equal rights.

The Coming of Socialism in Europe

By the mid 19^th century, ideas of socialism had become well known in Europe. Socialists believed that factory owners earned profits because of the hard work being put in by workers, but the factory owners did nothing to look after the welfare of workers.

Socialists had different visions of the future…

A leading English manufacturer Robert Owen, demanded to build a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana (USA).

French Socialist Louis Blanc wanted the government to encourage cooperatives and replace capitalists enterprises.

(These cooperatives were to be associations of people who produced goods together and divided the profits according to the work done by members.)

Karl Marx & Friedrich Eangels

Karl Marx argued that the industrial society was capitalist and the profit of the capitalists was produced by workers. The conditions of workers could not improve as along as this profit was accumulated by private capitalists. He believed that to overthrow capitalist exploitation, workers had to construct a radically socialist society where all property was socially controlled, i.e. all production units should be nationalized. This society will be a communist society. (Books - Das Capital & Communist Manifesto)

Friedrich Engels joined with Marx to support that workers have to overthrow capitalism and the rule of private property.

Support of Socialism

These socialist ideas spread to Europe by the 1870s. Socialists over different regions formed an international body named the Second International to coordinate their efforts to spread socialist ideas through Europe by the 1870s. (It was an organization of socialist and labour parties formed in Paris on 14 July, 1889)

In England and Germany, workers formed associations to fight for better living and working conditions.

They set up funds to help members in times of distress, demanded reduction of working hours and the right to vote. In Germany, these associations worked with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and helped to win parliamentary seats.

By1905, socialists and trade unions formed a Labour Party in Britain and Socialist Party in France. These parties were however not succeeded in forming governments in their countries.

The Russian Revolution

The government of Russia was taken over by the socialists through the October Revolution of 1917.

The fall of monarchy in February 1917 in Russia and the events of the October Revolution are normally called the Russian Revolution.

The Russian Empire in 1914

In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled Russia and its empire.  The major religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity but the empire also included Catholics, Protestants, Muslims and Buddhists.

Economy and Society

By the beginning of 20^th century, 85% population were agriculturists (higher in most European countries – France40%, Germany-50%)

Russia was a major grain exporter.

Prominent Industries were located in St. Petersburg & Moscow.

In 1890, many factories started due to the expansion of the railway network and foreign investment. (Craftsmen workshops & Factories)

Sometimes workers had to work for 15 hours at low wages.

Workers were divided on the basis of skill.

Women made up 31 per cent of the factory labour force by 1914, but they were paid less than men.

Workers were sometimes united to participate in strikes (to stop work) when they disagreed with employers about dismissals or work conditions. Such strikes took place in the textile industry during 1896-97 and metal industry during 1902.

Socialism in Europe

All political parties were illegal in Russia before 1914. The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was founded in 1898 by socialists who respected Marx’s ideas, it had to operate as an illegal organization.  It started a newspaper, mobilised workers and organised strikes.

Socialists in the countryside formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900 which struggled for the rights of peasants. 

The Social Democrats disagreed with Socialist Revolutionaries about peasants. They believed that peasants cannot be part of the socialist movement as some peasants were poor, some were rich, capitalists and some even employed workers on their fields. (differentiation within them, could not all part of a social movement)

The party was divided over the strategy of organization. Vladimir Lenin (who led the Bolshevik group) thought that in a repressive society like Tsarist Russia, the party should be disciplined and should control the number and quality of its members. Others (Mensheviks) thought that the party should be open to all (as in Germany).

A Turbulent (bad) time : The 1905 Revolution

The Tsar in Russia was an autocrat and enjoyed all powers. Liberals along with socialists were campaigning to make Russia a democratic state.

In the year 1904, prices of essential goods like bread rose and the real wages declined. Over the next few years more than 110000 workers in St. Petersburg went on strike demanding a reduction in the working day to eight hours, an increase in wages and improvement in working conditions.

In 1905, A procession of workers led by Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace of the Tsar, they were attacked by the police and the Cossacks (Semi-military  communities in Russia). Over 100 workers were killed and about 300 were wounded. This incident, known as Bloody Sunday. It started a series of events that became known as the 1905 Revolution.

This marked the beginning of strikes in the cities with students, lawyers, doctors and engineers staging walkouts, complaining about the lack of civil liberties.

Under such circumstances, the Tsar allowed the creation of an elected Parliament called the Duma. He however tried to control the Duma.

Impact of First World War

In 1914, the FWW broke out between Germany, Austria and Turkey on one hand(central) and France, Britain and Russia on the other hand.

Initially people of Russia supported the Tsar but as the war progressed, the Tsar refused to consult the main parties in the Duma.

During the war, anti-German feelings ran high and Tsarina  Alexandra’s German origins and poor advisers, especially a monk called Rasputin, made the autocracy unpopular.

Russia’s armies lost badly in Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916. There were over 7 million casualties by 1917.

Retreating Russian army destroyed crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from being live off the land, which led to over 3 million refugees in Russia. The war also had a severe impact on industry. Industrial equipment disintegrated.

By 1916, railway lines began to break down. Labour shortages forced small workshops producing essentials to shut down. Bread and flour became scarce, riots at bread shops were common.

The February Revolution in Petrograd

In February 1917, there were food shortages in Russia. The winter was very cold and the heavy snow and frost made the life of workers very difficult. Parliamentarians were opposed to the Tsar’s desire to dissolve(suspend) the Duma. While the working class was disgruntled(irritated) because of the shortages of food supplies .

On 22 February, a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank of the river Nava. (On the left bank-the Winter palace and official building the place where the Duma met) More workers from other factories joined them. Many women led the strike in factories. This came to be called the International Women’s Day. (Julian & Gregarian Calander-13days ahead)

Demonstrating workers crossed from the factory quarters to the centre of the capital, the government imposed a Curfew.

All the demonstrators dispersed by the evening, but they came back on the 24^th and 25^th. The government tried to control the situation and called out the cavalry and police. The Duma was suspended on Sunday, 25^th February.

After February

In the Provisional Government, army officials, landowners and industrialists played an important role.

Restrictions on public meetings and associations were removed. After February ‘Soviets’, like the Petrograd Soviet, were set up everywhere, though no common system of election was followed. In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from his exile.

He had earlier demanded that the war should be brought to an end, land should be distributed among the peasants and banks should be nationalized. This came to be knows as  Lenin’s ‘April Theses’. (The war be brought to a close, the land be transferred to the peasants, the banks be nationalised)

He also argued that the Bolshevik Party renamed itself as the Communist Party to indicate its new radical aims.

Workers’ movements and its Effects

Throughout the summer, the workers movement spread. During this time, the committees of workers were formed to look into the working of the industries. Trade unions grew in number. Soldiers’ committee were formed in the army.

In June, about 500 Soviets sent representatives to an All Russian Congress of Soviets.

The Bolsheviks were suppressed by the provisional government because of their radical demands. As the Provisional Government saw its power reduce and Bolshevik influence grow, it decided to take stern measure against the spreading discontent. Popular demonstrations staged by the Bolsheviks in July 1917 were sternly repressed(withdrawn). Many Bolshevik leaders had to go into hiding or flee.

In the countryside, peasants under the Socialist leaders formed their own groups and land committees were formed to handle the distribution of lands to peasants. Peasants seized land between July and September, 1917.

The Revolution of October 1917

On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power.

A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet under Leon Trotskii to organize the seizure. The uprising began on 24 October.

Sensing trouble, Prime Minister Kerenskii had left the city to summon troops. The Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers.

By nightfall, the city was under the committee’s control and the ministers had surrendered.

At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority approved the Bolshevik action.

There was heavy fighting between pro-government troops and the Bolsheviks. By December 1917, the Bolsheviks controlled Moscow-Petrograd area.

What Changed after October

The Bolsheviks were totally opposed to private property. Most industries and banks were nationalized in November 1917. Land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility. They banned the old titles of aristocracy and in big cities, partition of large houses according to family needs was enforced. New uniforms were designed for the army and officials. The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).

Later, the Bolsheviks conducted elections to the Constituent Assembly, but failed to gain majority support. In January 1918, Lenin dismissed the Assembly. In March 1918, the Bolsheviks entered into a treaty with Germany at Brest Litovsk and ended the war with Germany.

The Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in the elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the Parliament of the country and they won. Russia became a one-party state. Trade unions were kept under party control. The secret police (called the Cheka first, and later OGPU and NKVD) punished those who criticized the Bolsheviks.

The Civil War

The Bolshevik uprising was criticized by Non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals and nobility. Their leaders moved to south Russia and organized troops to fight the Bolsheviks (the ‘reds’). During 1918 and 1919, the ‘greens’ (Socialist Revolutionaries) and ‘whites’ (pro- Tsarists) controlled most of the Russian empire. They were supported by foreign forces (France, Britain, Japan and America) who were worried at the growth of socialism in Russia. As these troops and the Bolsheviks fought a civil war, looting, banditry and famine became common. Supporters of private property among ‘whites’ took harsh steps with peasants who had seized land. Such actions led to the loss of popular support for the non-Bolsheviks. By January 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former Russian empire. Most non-Russian nationalities were given political autonomy(right to govern themselves) in the Soviet Union (USSR) – created from the Russian empire in December 1922.

Making a Socialist Society

During civil war, the Bolsheviks kept industries and banks nationalized. They permitted peasants to cultivate the land that had been socialized. Bolsheviks used seized land to demonstrate what collective work could be.

Process of Centralized Planning

A process of centralized planning was introduced. Officials assessed how the economy could work and set targets for a five-year period. The government fixed all prices to promote industrial growth during the first two ‘Plans’. Centralized planning led to economic growth. Industrial production increased. New factory cities came into existence.

However, rapid construction led to poor working conditions for workers.

Measures taken to improve status of workers:

An extended schooling system developed and arrangements were made for factory workers and peasants to enter universities.

Creches were established in factories for the children of women workers.

Cheap public healthcare was provided. Model living quarters were made for workers.

The effect of all this was uneven, though, since government resources were limited.

What changed after October

Stalinism and Collectivization

The period of the early Planned Economy was linked to the disasters of the collectivization of agriculture. The government fixed prices at which grain must be sold. In 1928, Party members toured the grain-producing areas, supervising enforced grain collections, and raiding ‘kulaks’ – the rich peasants. As shortages continued, the decision was taken to collectivize farms.

From 1929, the Party forced all peasants to cultivate in collective farms (kolkhoz). The bulk of land and implements were transferred to the ownership of collective farms. Peasants worked on the land, and the profit was shared. Those who resisted collectivization were severely punished.

Stalin’s government allowed some independent cultivation, but treated such cultivators unsympathetically.

The Global Influence of Russian Revolution

Influence of Bolsheviks

The possibility of a workers’ state fired people’s imagination across the world. In many countries, communist parties were formed. Many non-Russians from outside the USSR participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920) and the Bolshevik-founded Comintern(an international union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties).

Yet by the 1950s it was acknowledged within the country that the style of government in the USSR was not in keeping with the ideals of the Russian Revolution. It had denied the essential freedoms to its citizens and carried out its developmental projects through repressive policies.

By the end of the twentieth century, the international reputation of the USSR as a socialist country had declined though it was recognized that socialist ideals still enjoyed respect among its people.

Writing about the Russian Revolution in India

The Russian Revolution inspired were many Indians. Several attended the Communist University. By the mid-1920s, the Communist Party was formed in India. Its members kept in touch with the Soviet Communist Party. Important Indian political and cultural figures took an interest in the Soviet experiment and visited Russia. Among them Jawaharlal Nehru and Rabindranath Tagore, who wrote about Soviet Socialism. In India, writings gave impressions of Soviet Russia.

In Hindi, R.S. Avasthi wrote in 1920-21 Russian Revolution, Lenin, His Life and His Thoughts, and later The Red Revolution.

S.D. Vidyalankar wrote The Rebirth of Russia and The Soviet State of Russia.

There was much that was written in Bengali, Marathi, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu.

Stalinism and Collectivization - Repeat

Russian was facing a crisis of shortage of food grains. The peasants refused to sell grains at the prices fixed by the Government, resulting in the shortage of grain supplies in many cities.

Stalin took over the reins of the party after the death of Lenin. He introduced strict measures. In 1928, the party members visited many villages and raided rich peasants known as the kulaks.

The party converted small landholdings of many peasants into one collective large farm. All large collectivised farms were cultivated by the farmers with the help of tools pooled together. The profits of the farms were shared among the cultivators.

Many peasants resisted the policy of collectivisation. They were severely punished by the state. Many of them deported and exiled. Stalin allowed only some independent cultivators.

Agricultural production did not increase immediately. Many people criticised the collectivisation of farms and running of industries by the state. Stalin put many of his critics into labour camps and prisons. Many professionals were also executed by Stalin under the pretext of opposing the Government. A large number of innocent people were executed.